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In the past decade, India has undergone a sweeping transformation in its digital landscape, much of it driven by Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s government. From biometric identity programs to nationwide digital payment platforms and artificial intelligence integration, India has positioned itself as a global leader in digital public infrastructure (DPI). While these efforts have bolstered economic inclusion and technological advancement, they have also triggered growing concerns about data privacy, surveillance, and civil liberties.
Critics argue that the rapid rollout of centralized databases and mandatory identification systems lacks adequate safeguards, raising questions about who controls citizens’ data, how it is used, and whether India’s digital transformation respects constitutional rights. This tension between innovation and individual privacy has emerged as one of the most pressing debates in modern Indian governance.
This article explores the scope of India’s digital infrastructure initiatives, assesses the associated privacy risks, and discusses the broader implications for democracy and digital rights in the world’s largest democracy.
The Digital India Vision
Launched in 2015, Digital India is the flagship initiative of the Modi administration, aiming to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy. The core objectives include:
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Providing digital infrastructure as a utility to every citizen
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Delivering government services on demand
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Fostering digital literacy
Key components of this vision include:
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Aadhaar: The world’s largest biometric ID system
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Unified Payments Interface (UPI): A real-time digital payment system
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DigiLocker: A platform for storing digital documents
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CoWIN: The platform used for managing COVID-19 vaccinations
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India Stack: A suite of APIs enabling paperless and cashless service delivery
The success of these systems has earned global attention, with countries like the Philippines, Morocco, and Ethiopia exploring similar models. However, critics warn that the centralized nature of these platforms could come at the cost of individual privacy and data protection.
Aadhaar: Enabler or Threat?
At the center of India’s digital infrastructure is Aadhaar, a 12-digit unique identification number issued to over 1.3 billion people, linked to fingerprints, iris scans, and demographic information.
Though originally promoted as a voluntary means to access subsidies and welfare, Aadhaar has increasingly become de facto mandatory for accessing banking, mobile services, education, and healthcare. This linkage between identity and services has been criticized as a form of coercive digitization.
Several issues have emerged:
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Data breaches: Reports of Aadhaar data being leaked or sold online have surfaced repeatedly.
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Function creep: Aadhaar is now used for purposes far beyond its original intent.
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Exclusion: Technical glitches and authentication failures have led to vulnerable populations being denied welfare benefits.
In a landmark 2017 ruling, the Indian Supreme Court declared privacy a fundamental right, and in 2018 upheld Aadhaar’s constitutional validity while imposing limits on its use. Despite this, concerns persist that safeguards are insufficient.
The Absence of a Comprehensive Data Protection Law
One of the most alarming issues surrounding India’s digital infrastructure is the lack of a robust data protection law. While multiple drafts of a Data Protection Bill have been introduced, delays and controversial provisions have prevented its enactment.
Key concerns in current and previous drafts include:
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Broad exemptions for government agencies
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Vague definitions of “national interest” and “security”
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Concentration of power in the executive branch
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Limited rights for data subjects
Civil liberties organizations such as Internet Freedom Foundation (IFF) and Access Now argue that without independent oversight and enforceable rights, any data protection regime will be inadequate to prevent abuse of state power.
The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, passed by Parliament, attempts to fill this gap but has faced criticism for granting sweeping powers to the central government, including the ability to exempt itself from compliance.
Mass Surveillance and Predictive Governance
India’s expanding digital infrastructure has also fueled concerns over surveillance and predictive analytics, especially given the government’s track record with dissent and protest.
Systems like:
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NATGRID (National Intelligence Grid) – integrating data from various agencies
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CMS (Central Monitoring System) – monitoring communications
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Aadhaar-linked CCTV networks and facial recognition software
are seen as creating a surveillance architecture with limited accountability.
For example, several Indian states have begun deploying facial recognition technology (FRT) in public spaces, airports, and border areas without public consultation or privacy assessments. In Hyderabad, over 600,000 cameras linked to FRT systems have sparked fears of mass surveillance, especially targeting minorities and marginalized groups.
Moreover, predictive policing algorithms are increasingly being adopted by law enforcement, raising concerns about algorithmic bias, lack of transparency, and profiling.
CoWIN and Health Data Controversies
The CoWIN platform, lauded globally for organizing India’s massive COVID-19 vaccination campaign, has also come under scrutiny for privacy lapses. Reports in 2023 suggested that personal data, including phone numbers and Aadhaar-linked vaccination details, were accessible through unauthorized Telegram bots.
Despite denials from government officials, the incident exposed weaknesses in cybersecurity practices, lack of encryption, and poor user consent mechanisms.
Additionally, as India expands digital health initiatives through the Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission, fears persist that sensitive medical data could be commodified, mishandled, or accessed by insurance companies without proper consent.
Digital Payments and Financial Surveillance
The Unified Payments Interface (UPI), a Modi-era success story, has revolutionized India’s digital economy. However, its growth also opens doors to financial surveillance.
With every UPI transaction recorded and potentially accessible to financial regulators, concerns arise over:
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Transaction monitoring
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Profiling of consumer behavior
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Potential freezing of accounts
While digital payments promote efficiency, lack of transparency about data sharing between financial institutions and government bodies undermines user trust.
The Indian government’s promotion of digital currency (e₹ – digital rupee) has further intensified fears of state-controlled money being used to monitor or even control dissenters or political opponents.
Social Media, Censorship, and Intermediary Rules
Modi’s digital agenda extends into regulating online platforms, which has raised alarms about free speech and content surveillance.
The Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, compel platforms to:
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Trace the “first originator” of messages
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Take down content within tight timeframes
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Submit to government oversight bodies
WhatsApp has challenged these rules in court, arguing they violate end-to-end encryption and user privacy. Meanwhile, Twitter (now X), Facebook, and YouTube have been pressured to remove content critical of government policies or political figures.
Civil society groups see these moves as an attempt to stifle dissent and control narratives, especially ahead of elections.
Digital Inclusion vs. Digital Divide
One of the primary justifications for India’s digital infrastructure is inclusion—bringing services to the unbanked, undocumented, and underserved. Yet, the same systems can exacerbate inequality if not designed with empathy and transparency.
Examples include:
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Rural users struggling with Aadhaar biometric authentication
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Digital literacy gaps excluding older adults
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Poor internet access in tribal or remote regions
Moreover, women, Dalits, Adivasis, and trans communities face additional barriers to accessing digital services, particularly when identity documentation is required. Critics argue that technocratic optimism must be balanced with social justice.
Global Implications: A Model or a Warning?
India’s digital public infrastructure has been hailed as a model by the World Bank, G20, and other multilateral institutions. In fact, India is helping other countries develop similar platforms through the Modular Open Source Identity Platform (MOSIP).
However, exporting the Indian model without adequate data protection laws and ethical frameworks could normalize surveillance practices in the Global South.
India’s story offers both a template for scale and a warning about unchecked digitization. For the model to be sustainable, rights-based governance must become central to technological deployment.
Legal, Political, and Ethical Debates
The privacy debate in India is not merely legal—it is political and ethical. As digital tools increasingly mediate interactions between citizens and the state, the question becomes: Who controls the data, and to what end?
Key stakeholders continue to engage in this debate:
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The Supreme Court of India has played a mixed role—sometimes upholding rights, other times deferring to executive discretion.
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Parliamentary oversight has been limited, with few meaningful checks on how agencies collect and use data.
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Civil society organizations remain vocal but face increasing pressure from the state through regulatory crackdowns and funding restrictions.
The ethical dimensions—consent, dignity, equity—must be foregrounded in public discourse, particularly in a democracy as diverse and complex as India.
Conclusion: The Need for Balance
Prime Minister Modi’s digital infrastructure push has undeniably changed the face of Indian governance and service delivery. It has brought efficiency, transparency, and innovation to sectors long plagued by bureaucracy and corruption.
However, technological transformation without adequate legal and ethical safeguards can come at a heavy cost—eroding privacy, amplifying surveillance, and deepening social inequities.
India now stands at a critical crossroads. It can lead the world by example—blending digital advancement with robust protections for civil liberties—or it can risk setting a precedent where scale and control are prioritized over rights and accountability.
A rights-respecting digital future is not just a policy goal; it is a democratic imperative.
